Introduction
Signal reflection occurs when an electrical signal encounters an impedance discontinuity along a transmission line, causing a portion of the signal to be reflected back towards the source. This can lead to interference issues like ringing and noise in high speed PCBs. Properly matching trace impedance and terminating lines helps avoid reflections. This article provides an overview of signal reflection causes, effects, calculations, and design techniques to mitigate reflection problems in circuit boards.
What Causes Signal Reflection?
Reflection arises from an impedance mismatch. Wherever the signal line characteristic impedance Z0 changes along its path, some incident signal energy will reflect while the remainder transmits through.
The most common sources of mismatch and reflection in PCBs include:
- Trace impedance change from differences in width, thickness, or dielectric
- Stub traces that branch off from main signal path
- Components with mismatched terminal impedances
- Improper termination at load end of line
- Vias that transition between layers with different stackup materials
- Discontinuities at connections like connectors or IC pads
- Damage like cracks or cuts in a trace
Minimizing impedance discrepancies along the signal path reduces the likelihood of reflections.
Reflection Effects
When reflections occur on a signal line, several detrimental effects can arise:
Ringing – multiple reflections lead to resonances and ringing artifacts on the signal
Noise – inter-symbol interference from reflected signals appearing at unintended times
Overshoot – excessive peak voltage from constructive interference between incident and reflected waves
Undershoot – sagging voltage dips caused by destructive signal interference
Jitter – timing variations resulting from impedance discontinuities
EMI – radiated interference caused by resonances along the transmission path
Signal Integrity – reflection noise that can degrade receiver performance and contribute to bit errors
Power Integrity – impedance issues that compound power distribution network resonances
Proper impedance control minimizes these reflection issues which are problematic in high speed digital systems.
Transmission Line Theory
To understand and model reflections, we must consider the transmission line model of interconnects:
Where:
- R = Resistance per unit length
- L = Inductance per unit length
- G = Conductance per unit length
- C = Capacitance per unit length
Together R, L, G, and C define the characteristic impedance Z0 of the line:
When Z0 is constant throughout the path, signals propagate without reflection. Wherever Z0 changes, reflection occurs according to the reflection coefficient Γ:
Where Z1 is the load or intermediate impedance causing mismatch. This model allows calculating reflection severity at each impedance discontinuity.
Reflection Calculations
The reflection coefficient quantifies the portion of signal reflecting back at a impedance change.
For example, consider a 50 Ω transmission line terminated into 75 Ω. Applying the reflection coefficient equation:
Γ = (Z2 – Z0) / (Z2 + Z0)
Γ = (75 Ω – 50 Ω) / (75 Ω + 50 Ω)
Γ = 0.2
This indicates 20% of the incident signal reflects back from the impedance mismatch. The remainder transmits through to the load.
Additionally, the voltage reflection coefficient ρ provides the amplitude of the reflected waveform relative to the incident wave:
ρ = (Z2 – Z0) / (Z2 + Z0)
So in this example, the reflected voltage wave will be 20% of the incoming signal amplitude.
These principles allow quantifying reflection severity for any impedance mismatch along a transmission path.
Avoiding Reflections During Routing
Several PCB routing techniques help reduce signal reflections:
Impedance Matching
- Maintain consistent trace width based on stackup dielectric to match target Z0
- Compensate for thickness changes with width tapers
- Use impedance calculators to design trace geometry
Use Ground Planes
- Reference to continuous ground layers stabilizes impedance
- Avoid routing over splits in ground planes
Minimize Trace Stubs
- Route with shortest connections between drivers and loads
- Avoid creating stub traces that branch off of signal lines
Symmetric Routing
- Equal trace lengths for complementary differential pairs
- Match component placements of differential pairs
Termination
- Properly terminate trace ends near load impedance
- Series terminate drivers, parallel terminate loads
- Avoid unterminated transmission line stubs
Careful routing practices eliminate unnecessary impedance discontinuities and reflections.
PCB Layer Stackup Design
In addition to routing, the layered construction of the PCB impacts impedance control:
- Minimize layer changes with vias – use direct routes where possible
- Maximize reference plane layers – avoid splits under critical traces
- Model reference plane interactions – maintain constant line environment
- Watch glassweave effects – model actual weave patterns
- Keep dielectrics consistent – use same materials for core, prepreg, solder mask
- Model various densities – copper fills can change local impedance
Simulating the actual manufactured PCB stackup is key to predicting impedance and reflections.
Via Design to Limit Reflections
Vias that transition between layers introduce impedance discrepancies and reflections:
- Model vias in layout tools and account for pad shapes
- Use smaller drill sizes to reduce Z0 change
- Avoid routing vias near sensitive crossover nodes
- Minimize signal layer changes
- Place ground vias adjacent to signal for shielding
- Backdrill or stub-eliminate unused via portions
Properly designing vias for the signal path impedance mitigates discontinuity effects at layer transitions.
Terminating Traces
Adding termination resistors absorbs incident signals, preventing reflections:
Source Termination
- Called series termination
- Resistor at source isolates driver from reflections
Load Termination
- Called parallel termination
- Resistor at load matches line impedance
Split Termination
- Combination of source and load termination
- Divides termination resistance value
Terminations should match line impedance and be located as physically close to endpoints as possible.
Simulation and Modeling
Validate designs through electromagnetic (EM) analysis of reflection severity:
- Model routed traces with actual geometry in layout tools
- Simulate across frequency range of interest
- Identify resonant ringing and reflection hotspots
- Evaluate effects of layer transitions, vias, stubs
- Verify location and value of terminations
- Tune layout to reduce resonances
Simulation provides insight to refine layouts by minimizing identified impedance mismatches before manufacturing PCBs.
Signal Reflection Mitigation – Frequently Asked Questions
Here are some common questions related to dealing with reflections in high speed board design:
What is the typical PCB trace impedance?
The most common impedance for signals lines is 50 ohms. This matches cable impedance and provides a good tradeoff between conduction losses and reflections.
When do reflections need mitigation?
Reflections must be addressed whenever fast edge rates under 1-2ns rise time are present on unmatched transmission lines longer than 1/10th wavelength.
How can reflections be observed?
An oscilloscope plots signal waveform ringing and noise caused by impedance discontinuities. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) tools also measure reflections.
Where should source termination resistors be placed?
Series resistors should be located as close as possible to the driver output pin or package to prevent resonances on the line prior to damping reflections.
What values are used for termination resistors?
Terminator resistance should match the trace characteristic impedance (typically 50Ω). Lower values attenuate while higher values reflect more energy.
Conclusion
Signal reflections that can arise whenever impedance changes along a PCB trace are a primary concern in high speed digital design. Using controlled geometries, matched layer stacks, symmetric layout, routed line terminations, and simulation minimizes discontinuities that lead to problematic ringing and noise. With care taken to design, analyze, and validate the transmission environment, signal reflections can be effectively avoided ensuring reliable circuit performance.
Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) have been the focus of scientist and engineers to bring novel ideas on how to improve the quality of end electronic product. As PCBs play the key role in functionality and performance of any electronic product or device so the perfectly designed PCB layout is highly important. There are many factors that a design engineer must consider while designing a PCB layout and these factors are driven by the requirements of end product.
Like number of layers PCB, size and dimensions of PCB, number of electronic components to be soldered upon PCB, types of components, routing techniques and many other PCB design factors. Among them one of the most important aspect is the “Impedance Matching”. The PCB that is dedicated for the electronic product that is to be used for High frequency application like RF or microwave electronics, then the most critical part of the PCB layout design is to control the impedance of the circuit.
What is Signal Reflection.?
As we are familiar with the phenomena of reflection that when a light ray is incident on the mirror then the light is reflected from mirror’s surface. Another example is water, when light enters the water some of the light is refracted while some is reflected. The same phenomena is with electrical signal. The signal reflection is the phenomena where the source transmits the electrical signal in the signal trace to the receiver/sink and some part of the signal is reflected back from receiver/sink back to the source. This reflected signal can cause signal distortion and oscillation in the circuit.
Why the Signal is reflected..?
The reason for the signal reflection from receiver to the transmitter is the transient impedance caused by the discontinuity in characteristic impedance of signal trace. If the characteristic impedance is uniform through starting from source or transmitter to sink or receiver then there will be no signal reflection. The discontinuity in characteristic impedance of signal trace can be caused by variation in signal trace width, thickness, distance between the trace and the corresponding reference plane and dielectric constant of the substrate material of PCB.
Effects of Signal Reflection:
Oscillation:
Fortunately, the signal reflected from receiver is always less in strength then the main signal, hence the reflected signal is again transmitted and then again reflected with lesser strength, and hence in this way the signal is diminished slowly but will cause a temporary oscillation.
Overshooting and Undershooting:
If the delay time between the signal transmission and reception is short and the signal transmission is faster and if the previous reflected signal was not given time/delay to diminish and next signal is transmitted then this will cause the signal “peaks” to accumulate and will cause reflected signal overshooting thus complete failure of the circuit will happen. Similarly if the signal “valley” are accumulated this will cause reflected signal undershooting thus weakening the main signal to cause false clocking or misinterpretation of digital data lines like SDI, SDO, SCLK etc. This overshooting or undershooting can completely destroy the protective diodes at the signal ends.
Signal Distortion:
The reflected signals from receiver end if are strong enough then they can possibly change the logic state of digital circuitry hence the circuit will behave in unanticipated manner. Distorted signal are sensitive towards noise.
How is Signal Reflection Calculated.?
As an example scenario refer to the diagrammatic representation of the signal trace between two points A and B on the PCB.
In the above diagram signal (Vi Voltage and Current Ii) Vi incident from source A to sink B. The characteristic impedance from A to B was continuous but from point B the impedance of signal trace changed hence changing the voltage Vo and current Io transmitted onwards. The characteristic impedance from A to B is Zi while from point B it is Zo. Keeping the picture in view above, for point B looking from left, we can write using ohm’s law as
 | (1) |
Now looking at point B from right, line impedance is now Zo then we can write for Vo as
 | (2) |
Now there are two cases
Case-1: The Impedance is not discontinuous and Zi = Zo
In this case if Zi = Zo then we simply get Vo = Vi means the transmitted voltage is same as incident voltage Vi and no signal is reflected.
Case-2: Discontinuous Impedance Zi ≠ Zo
Now here the incident signal is not completely transmitted onwards because of discontinuous non-uniform impedance of signal trace. Hence some part of the incident signal is reflected back as “Vr”.
Hence we can write
 | (3) |
Now since the reflected current flows in opposite direction so it will be minus from the incident current hence
 | (4) |
The reflected signal is travelling along the signal trace part with impedance Zi therefore we can use ohm’s law
 | (5) |
Put equations 1, 2 and 5 in 3 we get
 | (6) |
But
 | (7) |
Therefore
 | (8) |
Or
 | (9) |
This term with the impedance is called the reflection coefficient “Rc”.
| (10) |
The value of Rc can be from -1 to 1. But ideally Rc should be zero
Methods to Reduce Signal Reflection:
- The transmission rate or speed of the signal can be decreased so that the oscillation of reflected signal can be minimized and stabilize the circuit’s signal trace
- The PCB thickness is relatively kept low so as to reduce parasitic capacitances
- Shorten the signal transmission trace length by carefully arranging number of layers in multilayer HDI PCBs. This can effectively decrease the parasitic inductance to reduce cross talk between signals
- The number of turns or bends in the signal trace should be kept as low as possible. The signal trace should be in straight line but if the bend is necessary then the bend arc should be at 45O. This helps to reduce EMI radiation
- Route all important signal lines on same plane to minimize unwanted through holes.
- The separate ground and power planes should be used for separate regulated power supply for noise reduction in multiple power supply circuit system. This will enhance signal integrity.
- Apply correct routing topology
Routing Topologies:
The Parallel Topology:
In this structure arrangement, the source is simultaneously feeding the signal to more than one sinks or receivers. All the nodes/receivers connected in parallel or star fashion are synchronized with source. However the separate termination resistance is required for each node/branch and must be compatible with characteristic impedance.
The Series Topology:
Here the one transmitter or source is connected in daisy chain or series fashion the output of one is connected to input of other. A simple series resistor can be placed close to the driving/transmitting/source end to make the impedance at the receiver side compatible with characteristic impedance. The daisy chain branch length should be kept as short as possible. However the signals received at different receiving ends are not synchronized with main transmitter.
Signal Trace Termination:
There are two ways to terminate the signal trace. Either from the source end or from the sink end.
A simple series resistor placed between source and load and close to the source will do the job.
There are 4 ways to make signal termination at load / sink end.
Single resistor parallel termination:
RC Termination:
Thevenin Termination:
Diode Termination:
Differential Pair Termination:
