What is an FPGA?
A field programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit that can be programmed and reconfigured after manufacturing. This gives engineers the flexibility to customize the hardware logic and functionality of the chip for a specific application.
FPGAs contain programmable logic blocks and programmable interconnects that can be wired together in different configurations based on the designer’s requirements. By loading new programming, the logic cells and routing connections can be changed to implement digital circuits ranging from simple logic gates to complex arithmetic functions or custom hardware accelerators.
Some key capabilities of FPGAs:
- Customizable digital logic using logic array blocks (LABs)
- Flexible routing with programmable interconnects
- Millions of gates available on a single FPGA chip
- Reconfigurable even after deployment
- Supported by design and programming software tools
This combination of adaptive hardware and software programmability makes FPGAs ideal for prototyping digital systems and accelerating complex algorithms. Understanding how FPGA programming works provides the foundation for effectively using this powerful technology.
FPGA Architecture Overview
The core FPGA architecture consists of three main elements as illustrated below:
Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs) – The basic logic cell used to construct digital circuits. CLBs contain look-up tables (LUTs), flip-flops, multiplexers, and other standard logic.
Programmable Interconnect – Routing that connects the CLBs and other FPGA elements so they can communicate. This includes wire segments and programmable switches.
I/O Blocks – The pins or pads that send signals on and off the FPGA chip. Enables interfacing with external components.
By programming the functions in the CLBs and selectively enabling the desired programmable interconnect paths between them, any digital circuit can be mapped onto the FPGA hardware.
Next let’s look at the FPGA programming process that defines this logic and routing configuration.
FPGA Programming Essentials
FPGA programming involves:
- Designing the digital logic circuit you want to implement in configurable hardware
- Synthesizing the design into standard cells
- Mapping the cells to the FPGA’s CLBs, interconnect and I/Os
- Generating the binary bitstream file used to program the FPGA
This flow from design entry through mapping ultimately produces the bitstream loaded into the FPGA to activate the target digital circuit.
Let’s look at each step in more detail:
FPGA Design Entry
FPGA programming starts with defining your required functionality through:
- HDL Coding – Using a hardware description language like VHDL or Verilog to describe the digital logic design at the register transfer level (RTL). This defines the logical operation.
- Schematic Capture – Graphically depicting the logic using library components with a schematic editor. This captures connectivity.
- High-Level Synthesis – Using a high-level language like C++ to specify algorithms that are synthesized into hardware logic by the tool.
The output of design entry is a technology-independent representation of the desired circuit behavior.
Logic Synthesis
The next programming phase is logic synthesis which processes the design and maps it to physical gates and flip-flops.
Key steps in synthesis:
- RTL Analysis – Validate the design hierarchy and connectivity
- Technology Mapping – Map abstract design elements into target standard cells
- Gate Optimization – Minimize logic for most efficient gate implementations
Synthesis ultimately generates a gate-level netlist consisting of logic cell instances and connectivity ready for FPGA mapping.
FPGA Mapping
The mapping stage takes the synthesized netlist and maps it onto the FPGA architecture:
- Partitioning – Group logic into blocks that can fit within the CLBs
- Placement – Determine exact CLB locations for each logic cell
- Routing – Connect logic blocks based on available programmable interconnect
Mapping fits the design onto the FPGA fabric optimizing for performance, routing congestion, and power consumption.
Bitstream Generation
Finally, bitstream generation converts the finished mapping into a binary file used to program the FPGA. This configures the CLB functions and interconnect settings to activate that design on the FPGA hardware.
Key bitstream elements:
- CLB Configuration – Sets the LUT logic functions in each used CLB
- Interconnect Settings – Configures the programmable routing muxes
- I/O Blocks – Defines the I/O standards and drive strengths
- Clock Settings – Sets clock sources, PLL multipliers and divides
With this overview of the core programming flow, let’s look at each step in more detail.
FPGA Design Entry
Design entry is the creative phase where the desired circuit behavior and operation is defined using either HDL code, schematics, or high-level source code. This establishes the functional specification that will be implemented physically in the FPGA.
VHDL and Verilog Coding
HDL coding with languages like VHDL or Verilog provides complete control over the digital logic but requires learning an FPGA-focused programming language.
Key HDL coding steps:
- Define input and output ports
- Describe the register transfer logic (RTL)
- Instantiate gates, muxes, and other elements
- Develop testbenches to verify correctness
Modern HDL style uses concise behavioral code rather than convoluted structural descriptions.
Example VHDL Code for a 2-to-1 Multiplexer:
entity mux_2to1 is port ( A : in std_logic; B : in std_logic; SEL : in std_logic; X : out std_logic ); end mux_2to1; architecture Behavioral of mux_2to1 is begin process(A, B, SEL) begin if (SEL = '0') then X <= A; else X <= B; end if; end process; end Behavioral;
This describes the logical behavior of a 2-to-1 mux to select between inputs A and B based on the SEL control input.
Schematic Capture
For simpler designs, schematic capture provides a graphical approach to design entry using a library of logic gates and other common functions. Connectivity is defined by drawing wires between symbols.
Schematics are easier to visualize but do not scale to large, complex digital systems as well as HDL designs.
High-Level Synthesis
For very complex systems, high-level synthesis allows the design to be described using more abstract C/C++ or SystemC code instead of designing the exact RTL. The synthesis tool converts the algorithms into equivalent digital logic.
Key benefits of high-level synthesis:
- Increased productivity by coding in C/C++ instead of HDLs
- Code can be simulated and debugged faster at the C level
- Automated RTL generation for complex functions like DSP blocks
- Design re-use by recompiling code with different constraints
High-level synthesis enables software programmers to access FPGA acceleration more easily. But synthesized results still require analysis and optimization.
Logic Synthesis
After design entry, logic synthesis converts the abstract representation into a gate-level netlist targeting the design to the available FPGA cells and architecture.
Key steps in FPGA synthesis:
- Design Analysis – Validate design hierarchy and connectivity
- Technology Mapping – Map to logic cells like LUTs and flip-flops
- Optimization – Minimize logic paths to reduce area and delay
- Netlist Generation – Output netlist of cell instances and connectivity
Design Analysis
The first phase of logic synthesis analyzes the design hierarchy, data types, connectivity, and other descriptors to elaborate the complete design structure. This checks for issues like infinite loops, race conditions, or unclear logic.
For HDL code, extensive static timing analysis helps identify any timing constraints violated by the current RTL structure. This verifies the design is physically realizable before optimization.
Technology Mapping
Technology mapping converts the abstract design elements like case statements or counters into the standard cells available in the target FPGA architecture like LUTs, carry chains, blocks RAMs, DSP slices, etc.
The mapping process determines how to construct each function using the proper combination of cells and resources. This builds the link between the functional intent and physical implementation.
Logic Optimization
After the initial tech mapping, optimization minimizes and restructures the logic to improve the performance and reduce the required area.
Common FPGA logic optimizations:
- Reducing the number of LUTs in series in combinational paths
- Merging and absorbing redundant or duplicated logic
- Minimizing decoders and multiplexers
- Restructuring to use dedicated hardware blocks where beneficial
Optimization iteratively improves the mapping to meet design goals.
Netlist Generation
The final synthesis output is a technology-mapped netlist specifying all the standard cell instances and their connectivity within the design. For FPGAs, this netlist describes:
- LUTs, flip-flops, and other logic cell instances
- Arithmetic carry chains, DSPs, and RAMs if used
- Exact pin-to-pin connectivity between cells
This netlist provides the mapped logical design ready for the placement, routing and bitstream generation stages that will map it onto the physical FPGA architecture.
FPGA Place and Route
Place and route fits the optimized logic netlist onto the FPGA fabric by assigning each cell to a CLB and determining the routing between blocks. This programs the custom hardware connectivity.
Place and route involves two primary steps:
Cell Placement
The placer assigns each cell in the netlist to a specific CLB location on the FPGA floorplan. This mapping tries to minimize timing delays along critical paths and avoid excessive routing congestion.
Key placement objectives:
- Minimize critical path delay by reducing wire lengths between connected cells
- Spread placement across CLBs to avoid hot spots and thermal issues
- Balance clock and I/O signal distribution trees across the device
Smart placement is essential for meeting timing closure and performance goals.
Routing
The router defines the programmable interconnect settings between placed CLBs that implement the required netlist connectivity. The router activates the optimal muxes and switch matrices in the FPGA to wire signals between placed cells.
Key routing tasks:
- Connect nets between related CLB pins
- Minimize congestion on global routing lines
- Match signal timing constraints as closely as possible
- Manage competing routes requiring the same resources
Routing completes the physical implementation of the design connectivity on the FPGA.
Bitstream Generation
The final programming stage is bitstream generation which converts the finished place and route results into a binary file used to configure the FPGA hardware. The bitstream contains instructions for loading the contents of every configurable element in the FPGA.
The main components of the FPGA bitstream are:
- CLB Configuration – Defines the LUT logic functions and routing mux settings inside each CLB used to implement mapped cells.
- Interconnect – Sets the programmable routing switches and connection boxes between CLBs based on the routed nets.
- I/Os – Configures the I/O block modes, drive strengths, delays, and voltage standards for each used I/O.
- Clocking – Programs the PLL multipliers and dividers, clock muxes, and clock enable chains.
- Timing Constraints – Specifies timing exceptions and overrides for timing paths.
- Debug Logic – Inserts hardware breakpoints or triggers for debugging if used.
The bitstream may also contain encryption and security mechanisms to protect IP. Once generated, the bitstream file can be loaded into the FPGA device to activate the design.
FPGA Programming Tools and Flows
To make FPGA programming feasible, electronic design automation (EDA) tools provide development environments for the full FPGA flow.
The two dominant FPGA toolchains are:
- Xilinx Vivado – For programming Xilinx FPGA families
- Intel Quartus Prime – For Intel/Altera FPGAs
Both suites include:
- Design entry – HDL editors, schematic capture, HLS synthesis
- Simulation – For verifying functionality via testbenches
- Synthesis – Technology-specific logic synthesis and optimization
- Place and Route – Automatic mapping to the FPGA fabric
- Bitstream Generation – Converts the mapping into the programming file
- Debugging – Probe insertion, signal viewers, hardware breakpoints
The tools manage the complex programming steps required to transform an abstract FPGA design into a physical bitstream implementation.
Conclusion
To summarize, FPGA programming involves:
- Capturing the required logic behavior through HDL, schematics or HLS
- Synthesizing the design into optimized standard cells
- Mapping cells to the FPGA CLBs and defining interconnect
- Generating a bitstream to configure the FPGA hardware
FPGA programming tools automate this complex process allowing designers to focus on functional requirements rather than physical implementation.
The programmable flexibility makes FPGAs ideal for prototyping digital systems, adapting to changing standards, and accelerating algorithms in hardware. Understanding the fundamentals of FPGA programming enables leveraging these benefits for your next design.
Frequently Asked Questions
How are FPGAs programmed?
FPGAs are programmed by loading a binary bitstream file generated by EDA tools. This configures the CLBs, interconnect, and I/Os to activate the target digital circuit.
What are the main steps in the FPGA programming flow?
The key steps are design entry, logic synthesis, place and route mapping, and finally bitstream generation. This implements the digital logic physically in the FPGA.
What hardware description languages can be used for FPGA programming?
The most common HDLs for FPGAs are VHDL and Verilog. These allow precisely describing digital logic at the register-transfer level.
How are high-level languages used for FPGA programming?
High-level synthesis tools convert C/C++ and SystemC code into equivalent FPGA logic networks. This allowsprogramming FPGAs at a higher abstraction.
What does place and route do for FPGA programming?
Place and route maps the optimized logic netlist onto FPGA CLBs and interconnect. This defines the custom routing between logic blocks.
